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World Famous art disappeared after reaching ,its zenith ..
Revived again..
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The art of Turkish tiles
and ceramics occupies a place of prominence in the
history of Islamic art. Its roots can be tr aced
at least as far back as the Uighurs of the 8th and
9th centuries. Its subsequent development was
influenced by Karakhanid,
Ghaznavid, and (especially)
Iranian Seljuk art. With the Seljuks'
victory over the Byzantines at Malazgirt in 1071,
the art followed them into Anatolia and embarked
upon a
new period of strong development fostered by the
Anatolian Seljuk sultanate.
The Anatolian Seljuks were of course influenced by
the cultural heritage they encountered in their new
homeland, adapting them to the techniques that they
had brought with them from the Iranian plateau. This
resulted in a distinctively Anatolian style of
Seljuk architecture that was in full bloom by the
13th century. Seljuk mosques, medreses (theological
academies), tombs, and palaces were lavishly
decorated with exquisite tiles. Examples of such
tile-clad structures can still be seen in the
Seljuks' capital city of Konya as well as in the
cities of Sivas, Tokat, Beysehir, Kayseri, Erzurum,
Malatya, and AlanyaThe most frequently-encountered
type of architectural decoration during the
Anatolian Seljuk period involved the use of glazed
brick in which glazed (and also u nglazed)
bricks were arranged to produce a variety of
patterns, mostly on the facades of buildings.
Turquoise was the most frequently-used color for
glaze although cobalt blue, eggplant violet, and
sometimes black were also popular.
A type of architectural decoration used in
conjunction with glazed brick was hexagonal,
triangular, square, and rectangular monochrome tiles.
Unlike brick, these were preferred for indoor
applications and were suitable for a multiplicity of
geometrical arrangements. Tiles were made from a
paste that was harder and more yellowish than that
of bricks. Turquoise, cobalt blue, violet, and (sometimes)
green glazes were used.There are rare examples with
traces of gilding.A third technique in which
the Anatolian Seljuks were skilled was that of
mosaic tile. This was also employed in interiors,
especially in mihrab niches, the interiors of domes,
transitions to domes, vaults, and walls. Tile mosaic
is formed by pieces of tile cut to shapes to fit the
pattern intended. The unglazed surfaces of the
tesserae are slightly conical. The pieces were
arranged glazed-side down after which a whitish
mortar was poured over them. When it had set, the
resulting plate or panel could be installed where
desired. Mosaic-tile compositions are generally
geometrical but floral motifs and Kufic or Thuluth
calligraphy are also found. The most popular colors
were turquoise, cobalt blue, eggplant violet, and
black. Examples of Anatolian Seljuk buildings
decorated with mosaic tile are Karatay Medrese
(Konya, 1251), Alaaddin Mosque (Konya, 1220), Gok
Medrese and Mosque (Sivas, 1271), the Malatya Grand
Mosque (1247), and Ince Minareli Medrese (Konya,
1264
).
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In addition to these techniques, which, along
with underglaze, appear in religious and funerary
architecture, there were two techniques employed only in
civil and palace architecture: minai tiles and luster tiles.
The forms of these tiles were also different, the favorite
shapes being stars and crosses; instead of geometric
patterns, vegetal scroll and lively figurative compositions
were used. The minai technique w as
developed in Iran in the 12th and 13th centuries mainly in
ceramics. The only place in Anatolia were tiles of this type
have been found is Alaeddin Kiosk in Konya. The palette of
colors that this technique offers is much greater and one
finds shades of violet, blue, turquoise, green, red, brown,
black, and white as well as gilding. Some colors were
applied under the glaze and then fired; others were applied
over the glaze which then received a secondary opaque white,
transparent, or turquoise glaze and was fired again. The
designs of minai tiles are lively and reminiscent of
miniatures with themes taken from palace and court life.
In underglaze tiles, the designs are painted onto the
surface, which is then glazed before the tile is fired. This
was the technique most commonly used by the Anatolian
Seljuks. The preferred colors were turquoise, cobalt blue,
green, violet, and black. Instances of black-decorated tiles
under a turquoise glaze are also found. Fine examples of
these tiles have been discovered at the excavations of the
Kubadabad Palace in Beysehir, where the tiles are decorated
with plant motifs as well as with figures of human beings
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The luster technique first appeared in
Abbasid Iraq. Later developed to a high level by the
Fatimids in Egypt, it was successfully employed by the
Iranian Seljuks. The only place in Anatolia where luster
tiles have been found is Kubadabad. The tiles discovered at
the excavations of the palace are now on display at the
 Karatay
Medrese Museum in Konya. Luster tiles are decorated in an
overglaze technique in which the design is painted with
lusterĞa mixture of metallic oxides incorporating silver and
copperĞonto a previously glazed and fired surface. The tiles
are then given a second firing at a lower temperature
producing a range of lustrous, mostly brownish and yellowish
tones. Seljuk palace luster tiles are decorated with plant
motifs as well as with human and animal figures. Anatolian
Seljuks sometimes used square, rectangular, hexagonal, and
triangular tiles to cover interior walls. These tiles are
plain, with turquoise, violet, or cobalt blue being the
chief colors applied in the underglaze technique. Sometimes
the traces of overglaze gilding are to be found; however
because the gilding was fired at a low temperature (or not
fired at all), it was not durable and has mostly disappeared.
Excavations carried out in 1965-66 at Kalehisar near
Alacahoyuk have revealed important evidence of the Seljuks'
ceramics industry in the 13th century. Two kilns were
unearthed along with a substantial quantity of kiln material
and incomplete and spoiled examples of ceramics decorated
with the sgraffito and slip techniques. In the sgraffito
technique, the object is allowed to dry to leather-hardness
after which the design, usually plant and floral motifs, is
incised into the surface, which may or may not be given a
coat of slip beforehand. The resulting design is then
covered with a transparent glaze of a different color and
then the piece is fired. In the slip technique, the design
is painted onto a red-paste surface using diluted white slip
to produce a slightly molded effect. The surface is then
given a coating of transparent glaze colored blue, green, or
light or dark brown and then fired. During the firing, the
areas decorated with slip assume a lighter shade of the
glaze color, which appears darker in the ground. Motifs are
stylized plant motifs and sometimes simple rumi (arabesque
scroll).
Emirate-period tiles are generally a
continuation of Seljuk techniques with one important
exception: the introduction of the cuerda seca technique,
which was subsequently developed by the Ottomans. The
earliest examples of this group are dated to the late 14th
and early 15th centuries. In this technique, a red paste is
given a coating of white slip. The design is stamped or
carved into the surface after which colored glazes are
applied. The contours of the designs are picked out with a
mixture of beeswax or vegetable fat and manganese oxide.
During the firing, the wax or fat burns away producing
contours of red or black that also prevent the differently-colored
glazes from running into one another.
The cuerda seca technique permits
extremely complex and detailed designs to be applied to
ceramic surfaces. In addition to plant motifs, examples
decorated with calligraphy and (less commonly) geometric
patterns that are a continuation of Seljuk traditions are to
be found. A rich and subtle palette of colors was available
with colors such as turquoise, cobalt blue, lilac, yellow,
black, and pistachio. Gilding was also used. Fine examples
of cuerda seca tiles are to be found at the Bursa Green
Mosque (1419-1420) and Tomb (1421-1422) the Mosque of Murad
II (Edirne, 1436), the Tiled Kiosk (Istanbul), and the Tomb
of Prince Mehmed (Istanbul, 1548).
Sgraffito and slip-decorated wares
continuing Seljuk techniques and styles were also produced
during the Emirate period. During early Ottoman times, they
appear among Iznik wares reflecting the tastes of folk art.
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In the course of excavations at the site of ancient
Miletus, the archaeologist and art historian F. Sarre
came across a type of polychrome pottery that
erroneously became known as 'Miletus ware'. We now know,
as a result of recent excavations, that these wares were
actually made in Iznik. These red-paste ceramics appear
during the second half of the 14th century. They are
decorated with motifs executed in tones of blue,
turquoise, and violet under a colorless or colored glaze.
Examples in which the motifs have black contours are
also known, as are pieces with black decorations under a
turquoise glaze. The principal forms are bowls and
dishes. A feature of most 'Miletus' ware is that the
interiors are given a coating of slip but part of the
exteriors and the bases are not. Designs tend to be
plant motifs and geometrical arrangements but animal
figures are also encountered. Most compositions suggest
the influence of the designs found on metal wares. One,
a composition of thick motifs radiating around a central
motif, is identical to the grooved designs on metal bath-bowls.2 |
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The late 15th and early 16th century marks the beginning of a
new period in Ottoman tile and ceramic-making. The most
important center active at this time was Iznik. Designs
prepared by artists who were employed in the studios of the
Ottoman court were sent to Iznik to be executed in wares
ordered for use at the palace. The court's patronage
stimulated and supported the development of an artistically
and technically advanced ceramic industry in Iznik.
The earliest example of the new styles that emerged in
the early Ottoman period are the 'blue-and-white' Iznik
ceramics. The techniques involved in their manufacture are
quite advanced as compared with anything previously done.
The pastes are quite hard, pure white, and of fine quality.
In an analysis that appeared in his report of the 1981-82
excavations, Dr Ara Altun noted that these ceramics must
have been fired at temperatures as high as 1,260 degrees
Celsius rather than the normal 900 degrees adding that, at
such temperatures, one is in the realm of light porcelain.3
The techniques and quality employed in these ceramics were
to last through various changes in style until the middle of
the 17th century.
During the late 15th and early 16th centuries, Iznik was
producing far more in the way of blue-and-white wares than
the wall tiles for which it was later to become famous. The
styles, designs, decorations, and techniques of these
ceramics are quite distinct from Seljuk traditions. These
changes in the Iznik potters' production habits are
attributed to attempts to imitate the 15th-century Ming
porcelains that were reaching the Ottoman court in various
ways. The glazes are limpid and there is no crazing. The
designs, which are given thin contours of slip, are executed
and painted flawlessly. Shades of cobalt blue dominate but
turquoise also appears here and there. The decorations
include stylized foliage, arabesques, and Chinese clouds
alone or in skillfully-executed compositions.
Iznik blue-and-whites can be classified in a number of
subgroups on the basis of their motifs and styles. One group,
with motifs consisting of stylized lobed leaves with curling
tips is attributed to a 'Baba Nakkas', a chief designer at
the Ottoman court studios in the 15th century, and is
therefore known as the Baba Nakkas style .4 Cobalt blue in
various tones is the principal color. Much later, small
touches of turquoise also appear.
Another blue-and-white group from Iznik is erroneously
called 'Golden Horn ware' because the first examples of it
were discovered at a site on the Golden Horn in Istanbul. J.
Raby has proposed calling them the 'Tugrakes spiral style'
instead.5 The motifs of tiny leaves and flowers on spirals
are executed in shades of cobalt blue, turquoise, and black.
Blue-and-white architectural tiles are rather rare but do
exist. The forms are usually hexagonal. Examples are to be
found in Edirne at the Mosque of Murad II (1436) and the Uc
Serefli Mosque (1437-1448); in Bursa in the tombs of Prince
Ahmed (1429), Prince Mustafa (1474), and Prince Mahmud
(1506); and in parts of Topkapi Sarayi in Istanbul.
Iznik is also where another misnamed group of ceramics
known as Damascus ware was manufactured. These ceramics are
dated to around the middle of the 16th century. The
forerunner of the style is said to be a lamp in the Dome of
the Rock that is dated 1549 and bears the signature 'Musli'.
In this object we find a new palette of colors incorporating,
in addition to the traditional cobalt blue and turquoise,
eggplant violet and a cumin green. During this period,
naturalistic such as tulips, roses, pomegranates and
hyacinths begin to enrich the repertoire of stylized plant
motifs and arabesques. During the second half of the 16th
century, the transition to polychrome wares took place. The
only examples of Damascus-ware architectural tiles that are
known are those in the Mosque of Hadim Ibrahim Pasa (Silivrikapi,
1551) and in the Yeni Kaplica spa in Bursa (1552-36
Yet another group of polychrome underglaze Iznik ceramics
to be erroneously attributed to another place is the one
misleadingly known as Rhodos wares, so-called because of the
numerous examples of them purchased from the island of
Rhodes and taken into the Cluny Museum. Dr Oktay Aslanapa's
excavations at Iznik have demonstrated incontrovertibly that
these wares were manufactured there. These ceramics have an
extensive palette and are generally decorated with
naturalistic flowers.
As late as the middle of the 16 century, the Ottoman
ceramic industry was producing more utensils than
architectural tiles. Thereafter however production shifted
heavily in favor of the latter as there was a strong surge
in the demand for tiles as decorations in the extensive
building programs undertaken by Suleyman I (1520-1566) and
his successors when the Ottoman Empire was politically,
economically, and culturally at its peak. Countless examples
of mosques and tombs not only in Istanbul but all over the
empire were adorned with the products of the Iznik potters'
skill.
These underglaze-decorated ceramics and tiles were
decorated with a rich palette of shades of cobalt blue,
turquoise, green, black, brown, and the famous 'coral' or
tomato red, the last of which appears in a slight relief
resembling sealing-wax. In tiles, this red appeared for the
first time in Suleyman I's great mosque, the Suleymaniye
(1557), in Istanbul.7 But other tiles in the same style were
to grace numerous monuments erected in Istanbul during the
years that followed: the Tomb of Hurrem Sultan (1558), the
Mosque of Rustem Pasa (1561), the Tomb of Suleyman I (1566),
the Mosque of Sokullu Mehmed Pasa (1572), the Mosque of
Piyale Pasa (1573), and the Valide Atik Mosque (Uskudar,
1583).
Although the traditional designs of stylized plant motifs,
arabesques, and Chinese clouds appear in the compositions,
there is a shift towards a more naturalistic style in which
tulips, carnations, hyacinths, roses, spring blossoms,
lilies, cypress trees, and clusters of grapes and vine
leaves appear. Compositions are relaxed and free, offering
greater scope for experimentation with new and richer
arrangements. (figure 10). Different styles of calligraphy
adorn the tile friezes on monuments; on utensils we find
images of ships, 'rock-and-wave' motifs, triple-spots,
animal figures, and fish-scale patterns. There is also a
proliferation in vessel forms of which deep and footed bowls,
vases, ewers, dishes, lamps, candle-holders, and mugs are
but a few.
Around the middle of the 17th century, the quality of the
Iznik potteries began to feel the impact of the economic
distress and political upheavals from which the Ottoman
Empire had begun to suffer. Colors become dull, the famous
tomato red turns brown and even disappears entirely. Designs
become crude and are haphazardly executed. Pastes become
coarse and glazes suffer from cracking. During this period
the Iznik manufactories apparently turned their attentions
more and more to the demands of customers who were less
finicky than the Istanbul court and its circles. There is
even evidence, in the form of written complaints, that
orders placed by the court in Istanbul were being delayed.8
By the 18th century, the ceramic industry in Iznik had
died out completely and Kutahya replaced it as the leading
center in western Anatolia. Indeed, Kutahya had been in
operation as a secondary center along with Iznik since the
14th century 9 but its production always paled in Iznik's
brilliance. But where production at Iznik was discontinued,
Kutahya plodded on.
For a while, the Kutahya potters produced inferior copies
of Iznik blue-and-whites but they also began producing
ceramics whose forms, colors, and techniques are quite
distinct. Among them are a group of Christian liturgical
utensils and tiles with religious themes that were made by
Armenian potters for their churches.
18th-century Kutahya ceramics are made with a white paste
and are usually decorated with underglaze-applied designs in
yellow, red, green, cobalt blue, turquoise, black, and
violet. The designs are freely executed. In addition to
polychrome wares, examples of blue-and-whites are also
encountered. Forms, which can be elegant, include thin-walled
small cups, saucers, bowls, ewers, pitchers, flasks,
incense-burners, lemon-squeezers, and ornamental eggs.
During the first half of the 19th century, Kutahya's
ceramics industry suffered a downturn from which it slowly
recovered during the second half and into the early part of
this century. Thus do we find examples of Kutahya-made tiles
decorating a number of late-Ottoman buildings. The tiles on
the Tomb of Sultan Mehmed Resad V in Eyup (Istanbul, 1918)
for example were made at the manufactory of Hafiz Emin Usta,
which was then operating in Kutahya. Many examples of
Kutahya ceramics from this period are to be found in museum
and private collections in Turkey.
The difficult straits into which the Iznik industry had
fallen in the 18th century inspired some in Istanbul to
establish a reliable source of tiles that was closer to home
and easier to control. Ibrahim Pasa, a grand vizier during
the reign of Ahmed III (1703-1730), had a tile-making
factory set up at Tekfur Sarayi in Istanbul. The output
unfortunately was incomparably inferior to that of Iznik:
designs were poor copies of Iznik originals, glazes had a
blue cast and were flawed, and colors were dull and lifeless.
Tile manufacturing at Tekfur Sarayi lasted thirty years or
so and the enterprise was generally regarded as a failure.
Nevertheless some of its output was used in buildings in
Istanbul such as the Hekimoglu Ali Pasa Mosque (1734), the
Yeni Valide Mosque (Uskudar, 1708), the Cezeri Kasim Pasa
Mosque (Eyup, a restoration done in 1726 of a mosque
originally built in 1515), and Kandilli Mosque (1751). There
is also a hearth, now in the Victoria and Albert Museum in
London, whose tiles were made at Tekfur Saray.
There is a third important group of Turkish ceramics that
are quite different from both the sublime products of Iznik
and the humbler wares of Kutahya. Canakkale ceramics have
begun attracting the interest and attention of researchers
and collectors more and more in recent years.
The earliest examples of these ceramics can be dated to
the end of the 17th century. Fairly good-quality wares
continued to be produced up until the beginning of the 19th
century. Pastes tend to be coarse-grained and are red (sometimes
beige). Designs consist of underglaze spots, simply-drawn
ships, flowers, fish, birds, and buildings that are applied
free-hand. Colors are a purplish dark brown, orange, yellow,
dark blue, and white. The most common forms are dishes,
plates, and jars.
During the 19th century, quality dropped off sharply.
Forms from this period consist of jars, ewers, jugs, vases,
flower-pots, and candle-holders as well as animal and human
figurines. Only a single-color glaze was used in these
ceramics and there are instances in which black, white, blue,
red, yellow, or gilded designs were applied over the glaze.10
Ceramic manufacturing at Canakkale was still being carried
out as late as the middle of the 20th century.
To summarize, the art of Turkish tile and ceramic-making
developed over the centuries incorporating many different
techniques and styles. Enriched by the arrival of the
Seljuks, the ceramic industry in Anatolia achieved a
deservedly worldwide reputation with the support of the
Ottoman court. Today, Kutahya has been revived as an
important center of tile and ceramic-making. In addition,
efforts are also being made in private workshops and
educational institutions in Iznik, Istanbul, and Bursa to
keep the art of traditional Turkish tiles and ceramics alive
and develop it so that it can address the demands of modern-day
life.
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Notes
1 G. Oney, 'Anadolu'da Turk Devri Cini ve
Seramik Teknikleri', Turk Cini Sanati, 1976: 11
2 O. Aslanapa, S. Yetkin, A. Altun, Iznik Cini
Firinlari Kazisi, II. Donem, 1989: 25
3 A. Altun, 'Iznik', Turkish Tiles and Ceramics,
1991: 8-9
4 N. Atasoy-J. Raby, 'Development and Growth of
Iznik Pottery', Iznik, 1989: 76
5 N. Atasoy-J. Raby: 108
6 For further details, see J. Carswell, 'The
tiles in the Yeni Kaplica baths in Bursa', Apollo, 120, 1984:
36-43; and S. Yetkin, 'Hadim Ibrahim camii cinileri', Ilgi,
20/45, 1986: 22-26
7 O. Aslanapa, S. Yetkin, A. Altun: 27
8 N.Atasoy-J.Raby, '1600-Sonun Baslangici': 273
9 F. Sahin, 'Kutahya cini keramik sanati ve
tarihinin yeni buluntular acisindan degerlendirilmesi', Art
History Periodical, IX-X, 1981: 272-273
10 G. Oney, 'Canakkale Ceramics', Turkish Tiles
and Ceramics, 1991: 104
Selected Bibliografhy
Altun, A.- Carswell, J.-
Oney, G. Turkish Tiles and Ceramics, Iznik Kutahya , Canakkale,
Istanbul, Sadberk Hanim Museum, 1991
Aslanapa, O.- Yetkin, S.-
Altun, A. Iznik Cini Firinlari Kazisi, 1981-1988, II. Donem,
Istanbul, Istanbul Research Center, 1989
Aslanapa, O. Anadolu'da Turk Cini ve Keramik Sanati, Istanbul
Research Institute of Turkish Culture Publications, 1965
Aslanapa, O. Turk Sanati, Istanbul, Remzi Book House, 1984
Aslanapa, O. Turkish Art And Architecture, London, Faber&Faber
Limited, 1971
Aslanapa, O. 'Kutahya Keramik Sanati', Kutahya, Ataturk'un
Dogumunun 100. Yilina Armagan, Istanbul, 1981-1982:69-82
Atasoy, N.- Raby, J. Iznik, London / Singapur, Alexandria Press,
1989
Atil, E. The Age of Sultan Suleyman The Magnificent, Washington,
National Gallery of Art, 1987
Carswell, J. 'Ceramics', Tulips, Arabesques & Turbans, (ed,
Yanni Petsopoulos=, London, 1982:73-120
Carswell, J. and C.J. F. Dowsett, Kutahya Tiles and Pottery from
the Armenian Cathedral of St, James, Jerusalem, I-II, Oxford,
1972
Demiriz, Y. Osmanli Mimarisinde Susleme, Erken Devir, Istanbul,
Ministry of Culture Publications,1979
Lane, A. Later Islamic Pottery, London, Faber & Faber Limited,
1957
Oney, G. Tiles And Ceramics, Prepared on the Occasion of the 'The
Age of Sultan Suleiman the Magnificent' Exhibition. Turkish
Republic. Ministry of Culture And Tourism, Istanbul, 1986
Oney, G. Turk Cini Sanati, Turkish Tile Art, Istanbul, Yapi
Kredi Bankasi Publication, 1976
Oney, G. Turkish Ceramic Tile Art in Anatolia, Tokyo, 1975
Oney, G. Ceramic Tiles In Islamic Architecture, Ada Press
Publishers, Istanbul, 1987
Oney, G. Beylikler Devri Sanati, XIV.-XV. Yuzyil, (1300-1453),
Ankara, Turkish History Foundation Print House, 1989
Porter, V. Islamic Tiles, London, British Museum Press, 1995
Sonmez, Z. 'Turk Ciniciliginde Tekfur Sarayi Imalati Ciniler',
Antika (Cini Ozel Sayi / Ceramics and tile), Istanbul, June,
1987, issue. 27
Sahin, F. 'Kutahya cini ve keramik sanati ve tarihinin yeni
buluntular acisindan degerlendirilmesi', Art History Periodical,
IX-X, Istanbul, 1981
Yetkin, S. Anadolu'da Turk Cini Sanatinin Gelismesi, Istanbul,
I.U., Faculty of Literature Publication, 1986 |
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